Annotated Bibliography
1. Adams, J. (2013). Blended learning: Instructional design strategies for maximizing impact. International Journal on E-Learning, 12 (1), 23-44. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/35484
The purpose of this study was to investigate the link between defined learning outcomes and increased job performance, when using different blended learning approaches. The research occurred with two hundred employees at one Canadian banking institution that was recognized as an employer of choice and was focused on continuous learning. The employees were segmented into four separate groups that experienced a distinct blended learning strategy. All participants were required to complete a pre and post-test skills inventory survey. The findings revealed that were marked differences in the four approaches with eLearning + classroom and eLearning + collaboration / coaching being recognized as the most valuable. The results indicated that delivering training in smaller segments of time (i.e. 20 minutes) had a positive influence on job performance. The implications illustrated that private learning organizations need to carefully consider their corporate culture to best determine the blended learning approach. Instructional Designers should aim to create blended learning that connects learning with job performance. When designers build courses that are focused on the learners’ needs, they result in a targeted, unique and effective learning experience.
2. Defazio, J. (2009). Collaborative learning communities: Evidence of theory-into-practice in instructional design. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 6(12), 37-46. Retrieved from http://wwwitdl.org/journal/Dec_09/article04.html
The purpose of this study was to consider the experiences and outcomes of first-year graduate students participating in a learning community. The study investigated defined instructional design theories and reviewed them within a learning community practice. Sixteen graduate students participated and completed a pre and post-test experiment. The learners were required to choose an instructional theory, design material on that topic using multi-media and conduct a 45-minute presentation to their classmates. The findings indicated that learners encountered challenges in transitioning theory into practice but experienced success in learning communities. It was found that there was an increase in knowledge gain and an appreciation for the instructional design process. Also, the students migrated to the theory that aligned most closely with their perspectives on instruction and learning. The study uncovered a new model for learning communities, which is a fusion of peer-assisted learning and ADDIE models. The implications were that the experience of participating in a learning community was very positive for the students. The study also recommended that further research be conducted on the new model and to research the correlation between learners and group interactions using technology.
3. Gedik, N., Hanci-Karademiri, A., Kusun, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2012). Key instructional design issues in a cellular phone-based mobile learning project. Computers & Education, 58(4), 1149-1159. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.002
The purpose of the study was to identify instructional design issues in creating a mobile learning (m-learning) module and to explore the students’ experiences with this learning approach. In 2010, 13 students from a private tutoring institution in Turkey, that were registered in a Grade 11 biology class, participated using their own smartphones. The study employed a mixed methods design with data collected through a combination of qualitative / quantitative survey, observation and notes. Findings identified an overall positive reaction to the experience and the participants demonstrated a curiosity regarding m-learning. The research also highlighted that technological issues had a negative influence on the curriculum and pedagogical approaches for the instructional designers. The data concluded that the learners found text-based communications most effective, while open-ended and multiple-choice questions were the least helpful. Implications identified were that younger students are open to m-learning, prefer staggered content delivery and customized content / features to maximize flexibility. Instructional Designers require technical experience and should integrate opportunities for peer learner technical support. Instructional Designers that integrate pedagogical direction into a defined design framework will establish clarity and open communication with their learners.
4. Hastie, M., Chen, N-S., & Kuo, Y-H. (2007). Instructional design for best practice in the synchronous cyber classroom. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 10(4), 281-294. Retrieved from www.ifets.info/journals/10.4/24/pdf
The purpose of this study was to research and articulate instructional design best practices for an on-line synchronous cyber classroom, specifically targeting younger students. Students from the Brisbane School of Distance Education, who were located in different international locations, volunteered to participate in an individualized on-line instructional program, in addition to their regular curriculum. The program evolved into a partnership with the National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. Findings identified ten best practices for instructional design that maximized on-line synchronous learning. Following these best practice had a positive impact on the students’ level of interaction and engagement, which resulted in better learning outcomes. Also the study highlighted that collaboration between teacher and student improved during this learning process. Teachers that adhered to the instructional design principles increased their confidence levels in utilizing this technology. Implications from this study indicated that an on-line synchronous classroom created a collaborative learning environment. Teachers that adhered to the streamlined and minimalist approach defined by the ten best practices, generated better student engagement and encouraged more teachers to attempt synchronous on-line opportunities. Synchronous environments create better student performance when compared to other instructional methods.
5.. Kulaselkara, G., Jayatillelle, B., & Coomaraswamy, U. (2011). Learner perceptions in instructional design of multimedia in learning abstract concepts in science at a distance. Open Learning, 26(2), 113-126. doi: 10.1080/02680513.2011.567459
The purpose of the study was to examine learner perceptions on instructional design strategies used in creating interactive multimedia. Forty-two undergraduate science students from the Open University of Sri Lanka studying microbiology through open and distance learning participated. The topic of bacterial genetics had been identified as a challenging topic to understand in the print material and this was the subject of the interactive multimedia module. The study was a hybrid quantitative approach with all forty-two students completing a questionnaire and it contained a qualitative element with thirty students being observed and interviewed. The study found that the “tour guide” or navigation page for first time students was very well received. The animations were rated as the most beneficial feature and depictions in colour were considered more helpful than the black and white print versions. Participants found that the combination of narrations and visual components were very effective. It was also highlighted that because of the placement of the learning outcomes, most students did not review them. Implications included embedding a navigational overview, integrating colour graphics and animations. It also recommended attaching audio with text when possible and to add learning outcomes to the contents section.
6. Macpherson, C., & Smith, A. (1998). Academic authors’ perception of the instructional design and development process for distance education: A case study. Distance Education, 19(1), 124-141. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/87206
This study examined perceptions of instructional designers that created distance education content. It explored the relationship between academic authors and instructional designers and made recommendations to enhance the experience for both students and instructors that participated in distance education courses. A total of eighty staff members at Central Queensland University were invited to participate, with 54 submitting responses. This was a qualitative research study that used case study methodology. The participants completed a modified questionnaire with twenty questions from April-May 1997. The study found that a majority of the academic authors had never written course material for distance education prior to their current assignment. The survey results indicated that there was a lower utilization rate of one-on-one assistance from the instructional designers and that many authors sought help directly from their peers. A number of respondents candidly advised that they did not find the relationship with the instructional designers as helpful. The implications indicated that new authors require initial assistance from the instructional designers and that these designers should be located within the academic unit. The results suggested that the role of the instructional designer and academic author should be clearly defined.
7. Roytek, M. (2010). Enhancing instructional design efficiency: Methodologies employed by instructional designers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 170-180. Doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.009.x
The purpose of this study was to identify effective methodologies employed by Instructional Designers that resulted in increased efficiencies when designing instruction. It included web-based training and was examined in the context of intensified pressure on companies in the competitive, global economy, to create quality and efficient training programs. This was a qualitative study that used case study methodology to collect data from 11 Instructional Designers that were employed by two separate private sector organizations. Data were collected through taped interviews and pre-interview activity. The study highlighted 47 distinct best practices that were used by the Instructional Designers to boost efficiency and four subcategories were developed to provide further clarity. The study discovered 14 additional supporting competencies for Instructional Designers that focused on beneficial knowledge, skills and attitudes. Within the competencies, authoring tools and knowledge of programming return on investment were identified as important. The study concluded that it is critical to assign specific and suitable role clarity within the design team. It also determined that flexibility is required by the instructional designers to function effectively within different team set-ups. The implementation of electronic tools was recommended to increase designer efficiency.
8. Schneider, R. (2009). Examining the instructional design of a technology enhanced course for new mentor teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 17(1), 85-107. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/26111
The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of web-based communication instruments to foster learning and build a professional network for new teacher mentors. It purposed to gain an understanding of how the use of these tools could assist Instructional Designers in developing / incorporating technology, that would strengthen these teacher partnerships. A total of 23 teachers participated in this qualitative study that utilized interviews, focus groups and a written questionnaire to gather data. The study found that teachers need a defined framework to effectively participate in technology-based activities. The participants also indicated that synchronous exchanges were not helpful but the in person meetings were identified as being critical and incredibly valuable. Overall, the teachers were satisfied with the opportunity and benefits of using technology but it was recognized that technology based learning is not always based with the learners in mind. The implications were that instructional design must be purpose driven and the use of technology carefully planned. The study recommended that instructional designers reconsider how technology can advance learning. It was also suggested that instructional designers begin to think about the transition from a traditional to a learner-centred approach, as new on-line design practices are required.
9. Schmertzing, L., & Schmertzing, R. (2002). Adapting to distance education: How an ethnographic look at student experiences can inform instructional design. Computers in the Schools, 19 (3/4), 9-22. . doi 10.1300/J025v19v03_02
The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural differences in distance learning courses and to determine if new comprehensive, adaptive strategies are required for instructional design. This was a qualitative research study that used a one year ethnographic approach to follow 278 graduate students that were enrolled in a graduate education course using video / audio. The study included classroom observations, formal interviews, focus groups and informal conversations. The findings indicated that most students successfully transitioned to this format while some participants were very relaxed and others found the adaption to be more challenging. Many students initially felt intimidated when presented with the technology and this hindered participation. Over time, they accepted the change and it resulted in a positive experience. The students mentioned that the pace was different in the classroom versus on-line. The implications of the research were that on-line learning is a unique experience and that the traditional methods of facilitating in the classroom are not effective. Alternatively, new design methods must be incorporated. The instructors must make a concerted effort to understand the new on-line format and must be aware of the participants’ efforts to successfully adapt.
10. Smith, G., Torres-Ayala A., & Heindel, A. (2008). Disciplinary differences in e-learning instructional design, Journal of Distance Education, 22(3), 63-88. Retrieved from http://jofde.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/91/704
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare how instructors of different disciplines address challenges in eLearning, using mathematics instructors as the benchmark. The study also purposed to investigate the different instructional design approaches used by various professional disciplines, primarily nursing / healthcare. The study employed a two-phased, mixed methods approach. The qualitative element saw twenty participants complete telephone and in-person interviews. The quantitative section had sixty participants complete an on-line questionnaire. The study found that the math instructors were very consistent in articulating the challenges specific to teaching mathematics on-line (abstract concepts, sequential nature of the material and instructor modeling.) With nursing / healthcare, the challenges outlined were general on-line learning issues and applicable to many other disciplines. The non e-Learning themes were consistent across disciplines but the eLearning issues were different between disciplines. The implications from this study were that eLearning can be segmented by discipline and the instructional design for eLearning should reflect those differences. The research advocated that in advance of designing an eLearning course, instructional designers and instructors should consult. Disciplines that are experiencing challenges working with technological tools should champion for better tools.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the link between defined learning outcomes and increased job performance, when using different blended learning approaches. The research occurred with two hundred employees at one Canadian banking institution that was recognized as an employer of choice and was focused on continuous learning. The employees were segmented into four separate groups that experienced a distinct blended learning strategy. All participants were required to complete a pre and post-test skills inventory survey. The findings revealed that were marked differences in the four approaches with eLearning + classroom and eLearning + collaboration / coaching being recognized as the most valuable. The results indicated that delivering training in smaller segments of time (i.e. 20 minutes) had a positive influence on job performance. The implications illustrated that private learning organizations need to carefully consider their corporate culture to best determine the blended learning approach. Instructional Designers should aim to create blended learning that connects learning with job performance. When designers build courses that are focused on the learners’ needs, they result in a targeted, unique and effective learning experience.
2. Defazio, J. (2009). Collaborative learning communities: Evidence of theory-into-practice in instructional design. International Journal of Instructional Technology & Distance Learning, 6(12), 37-46. Retrieved from http://wwwitdl.org/journal/Dec_09/article04.html
The purpose of this study was to consider the experiences and outcomes of first-year graduate students participating in a learning community. The study investigated defined instructional design theories and reviewed them within a learning community practice. Sixteen graduate students participated and completed a pre and post-test experiment. The learners were required to choose an instructional theory, design material on that topic using multi-media and conduct a 45-minute presentation to their classmates. The findings indicated that learners encountered challenges in transitioning theory into practice but experienced success in learning communities. It was found that there was an increase in knowledge gain and an appreciation for the instructional design process. Also, the students migrated to the theory that aligned most closely with their perspectives on instruction and learning. The study uncovered a new model for learning communities, which is a fusion of peer-assisted learning and ADDIE models. The implications were that the experience of participating in a learning community was very positive for the students. The study also recommended that further research be conducted on the new model and to research the correlation between learners and group interactions using technology.
3. Gedik, N., Hanci-Karademiri, A., Kusun, E., & Cagiltay, K. (2012). Key instructional design issues in a cellular phone-based mobile learning project. Computers & Education, 58(4), 1149-1159. doi:10.1016/j.compedu.2011.12.002
The purpose of the study was to identify instructional design issues in creating a mobile learning (m-learning) module and to explore the students’ experiences with this learning approach. In 2010, 13 students from a private tutoring institution in Turkey, that were registered in a Grade 11 biology class, participated using their own smartphones. The study employed a mixed methods design with data collected through a combination of qualitative / quantitative survey, observation and notes. Findings identified an overall positive reaction to the experience and the participants demonstrated a curiosity regarding m-learning. The research also highlighted that technological issues had a negative influence on the curriculum and pedagogical approaches for the instructional designers. The data concluded that the learners found text-based communications most effective, while open-ended and multiple-choice questions were the least helpful. Implications identified were that younger students are open to m-learning, prefer staggered content delivery and customized content / features to maximize flexibility. Instructional Designers require technical experience and should integrate opportunities for peer learner technical support. Instructional Designers that integrate pedagogical direction into a defined design framework will establish clarity and open communication with their learners.
4. Hastie, M., Chen, N-S., & Kuo, Y-H. (2007). Instructional design for best practice in the synchronous cyber classroom. Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 10(4), 281-294. Retrieved from www.ifets.info/journals/10.4/24/pdf
The purpose of this study was to research and articulate instructional design best practices for an on-line synchronous cyber classroom, specifically targeting younger students. Students from the Brisbane School of Distance Education, who were located in different international locations, volunteered to participate in an individualized on-line instructional program, in addition to their regular curriculum. The program evolved into a partnership with the National Sun Yat-sen University in Taiwan. Findings identified ten best practices for instructional design that maximized on-line synchronous learning. Following these best practice had a positive impact on the students’ level of interaction and engagement, which resulted in better learning outcomes. Also the study highlighted that collaboration between teacher and student improved during this learning process. Teachers that adhered to the instructional design principles increased their confidence levels in utilizing this technology. Implications from this study indicated that an on-line synchronous classroom created a collaborative learning environment. Teachers that adhered to the streamlined and minimalist approach defined by the ten best practices, generated better student engagement and encouraged more teachers to attempt synchronous on-line opportunities. Synchronous environments create better student performance when compared to other instructional methods.
5.. Kulaselkara, G., Jayatillelle, B., & Coomaraswamy, U. (2011). Learner perceptions in instructional design of multimedia in learning abstract concepts in science at a distance. Open Learning, 26(2), 113-126. doi: 10.1080/02680513.2011.567459
The purpose of the study was to examine learner perceptions on instructional design strategies used in creating interactive multimedia. Forty-two undergraduate science students from the Open University of Sri Lanka studying microbiology through open and distance learning participated. The topic of bacterial genetics had been identified as a challenging topic to understand in the print material and this was the subject of the interactive multimedia module. The study was a hybrid quantitative approach with all forty-two students completing a questionnaire and it contained a qualitative element with thirty students being observed and interviewed. The study found that the “tour guide” or navigation page for first time students was very well received. The animations were rated as the most beneficial feature and depictions in colour were considered more helpful than the black and white print versions. Participants found that the combination of narrations and visual components were very effective. It was also highlighted that because of the placement of the learning outcomes, most students did not review them. Implications included embedding a navigational overview, integrating colour graphics and animations. It also recommended attaching audio with text when possible and to add learning outcomes to the contents section.
6. Macpherson, C., & Smith, A. (1998). Academic authors’ perception of the instructional design and development process for distance education: A case study. Distance Education, 19(1), 124-141. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/87206
This study examined perceptions of instructional designers that created distance education content. It explored the relationship between academic authors and instructional designers and made recommendations to enhance the experience for both students and instructors that participated in distance education courses. A total of eighty staff members at Central Queensland University were invited to participate, with 54 submitting responses. This was a qualitative research study that used case study methodology. The participants completed a modified questionnaire with twenty questions from April-May 1997. The study found that a majority of the academic authors had never written course material for distance education prior to their current assignment. The survey results indicated that there was a lower utilization rate of one-on-one assistance from the instructional designers and that many authors sought help directly from their peers. A number of respondents candidly advised that they did not find the relationship with the instructional designers as helpful. The implications indicated that new authors require initial assistance from the instructional designers and that these designers should be located within the academic unit. The results suggested that the role of the instructional designer and academic author should be clearly defined.
7. Roytek, M. (2010). Enhancing instructional design efficiency: Methodologies employed by instructional designers. British Journal of Educational Technology, 41(2), 170-180. Doi:10.1111/j.1467-8535.2008.009.x
The purpose of this study was to identify effective methodologies employed by Instructional Designers that resulted in increased efficiencies when designing instruction. It included web-based training and was examined in the context of intensified pressure on companies in the competitive, global economy, to create quality and efficient training programs. This was a qualitative study that used case study methodology to collect data from 11 Instructional Designers that were employed by two separate private sector organizations. Data were collected through taped interviews and pre-interview activity. The study highlighted 47 distinct best practices that were used by the Instructional Designers to boost efficiency and four subcategories were developed to provide further clarity. The study discovered 14 additional supporting competencies for Instructional Designers that focused on beneficial knowledge, skills and attitudes. Within the competencies, authoring tools and knowledge of programming return on investment were identified as important. The study concluded that it is critical to assign specific and suitable role clarity within the design team. It also determined that flexibility is required by the instructional designers to function effectively within different team set-ups. The implementation of electronic tools was recommended to increase designer efficiency.
8. Schneider, R. (2009). Examining the instructional design of a technology enhanced course for new mentor teachers. Journal of Technology and Teacher Education, 17(1), 85-107. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/26111
The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of web-based communication instruments to foster learning and build a professional network for new teacher mentors. It purposed to gain an understanding of how the use of these tools could assist Instructional Designers in developing / incorporating technology, that would strengthen these teacher partnerships. A total of 23 teachers participated in this qualitative study that utilized interviews, focus groups and a written questionnaire to gather data. The study found that teachers need a defined framework to effectively participate in technology-based activities. The participants also indicated that synchronous exchanges were not helpful but the in person meetings were identified as being critical and incredibly valuable. Overall, the teachers were satisfied with the opportunity and benefits of using technology but it was recognized that technology based learning is not always based with the learners in mind. The implications were that instructional design must be purpose driven and the use of technology carefully planned. The study recommended that instructional designers reconsider how technology can advance learning. It was also suggested that instructional designers begin to think about the transition from a traditional to a learner-centred approach, as new on-line design practices are required.
9. Schmertzing, L., & Schmertzing, R. (2002). Adapting to distance education: How an ethnographic look at student experiences can inform instructional design. Computers in the Schools, 19 (3/4), 9-22. . doi 10.1300/J025v19v03_02
The purpose of this study was to investigate the structural differences in distance learning courses and to determine if new comprehensive, adaptive strategies are required for instructional design. This was a qualitative research study that used a one year ethnographic approach to follow 278 graduate students that were enrolled in a graduate education course using video / audio. The study included classroom observations, formal interviews, focus groups and informal conversations. The findings indicated that most students successfully transitioned to this format while some participants were very relaxed and others found the adaption to be more challenging. Many students initially felt intimidated when presented with the technology and this hindered participation. Over time, they accepted the change and it resulted in a positive experience. The students mentioned that the pace was different in the classroom versus on-line. The implications of the research were that on-line learning is a unique experience and that the traditional methods of facilitating in the classroom are not effective. Alternatively, new design methods must be incorporated. The instructors must make a concerted effort to understand the new on-line format and must be aware of the participants’ efforts to successfully adapt.
10. Smith, G., Torres-Ayala A., & Heindel, A. (2008). Disciplinary differences in e-learning instructional design, Journal of Distance Education, 22(3), 63-88. Retrieved from http://jofde.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/91/704
The purpose of this study was to examine and compare how instructors of different disciplines address challenges in eLearning, using mathematics instructors as the benchmark. The study also purposed to investigate the different instructional design approaches used by various professional disciplines, primarily nursing / healthcare. The study employed a two-phased, mixed methods approach. The qualitative element saw twenty participants complete telephone and in-person interviews. The quantitative section had sixty participants complete an on-line questionnaire. The study found that the math instructors were very consistent in articulating the challenges specific to teaching mathematics on-line (abstract concepts, sequential nature of the material and instructor modeling.) With nursing / healthcare, the challenges outlined were general on-line learning issues and applicable to many other disciplines. The non e-Learning themes were consistent across disciplines but the eLearning issues were different between disciplines. The implications from this study were that eLearning can be segmented by discipline and the instructional design for eLearning should reflect those differences. The research advocated that in advance of designing an eLearning course, instructional designers and instructors should consult. Disciplines that are experiencing challenges working with technological tools should champion for better tools.